A Review of (American English) Grammar, Spelling, Punctuation, and Usage

Introduction	American vs. British English	What is Grammar?
Common Errors	Spell Checker	Grammar Checker
Usage	Than vs. Then	Who, Which, That
different from vs. different than	Mixed Construction/Parallel Sentences	Sentence Structure
Conjunctions	Pronouns	Adjectives
Articles	Punctuation	Hyphenation
Dangling Modifier	Offensive Phrases	New Words
Compound Words	References	Latin Words and Phrases

Introduction

My degree is in communication, so I'll start with a basic theory of communication.
In simple communication, there are a minimum of four components: sender,
message, medium of transmission, and receiver. A fifth component is often,
unintentionally, introduced: noise.
Rules of grammar, spelling, punctuation, and usage are an attempt to reduce
the noise in communication.

American vs. British English

Why do I say "American English"? Aside from the commonly known differences in terminology (bonnet vs trunk, torch vs. flashlight, lift vs. elevator), American English and British English have several differences in basic grammar and punctuation. For example, in American English, a comma always, always, always goes inside the quotation marks (unless doing so would confuse the reader). Similar rules apply to other punctuation in or out of quotation marks, and the types of quotation marks used (single or double). In British English, you will also hear phrases such as "The team are meeting to decide on the next play." In American English, group nouns such as team are treated as singular. So, the same phrase in American English is, "The team is meeting to decide on the next play." (I hear the narrator on "Mythbusters" often saying, "the team are.." and it drives me batty!!) There are numerous Web sites dedicated to the differences between American and British English, so I won't provide all the gory details here; just be aware that the information below is reflective of American English usage.

Grammar is:

• The study of the way the sentences of
  a language are constructed
• The establishment of rules based on norms
  of correct and incorrect language usage
• Knowledge or usage of the preferred or
  prescribed forms in speaking or writing

Common Errors

• Relying too heavily on spell check
• Relying at all on grammar check
• Not reviewing your work
• Writing the way you speak
• Believing that since you've "seen
  it that way before" it must be correct

Spell Checker

Spell check only checks the spelling of words; it doesn't know if you've chosen the correct word. I suggest leaving the spell check feature turned on, however, so that typos are underlined in red for your attention (in Microsoft Word). (When in doubt, use a dictionary--or hire a tech writer!) Below are several words that are often misused.

• your, you're
• to, too, two
• they're, there, their
• advise, advice
• affect, effect
• adapt, adept, adopt
• all right, all-right, alright
• all together, altogether
• allude, elude
• discreet, discrete
• eminent, imminent
• explicit, implicit
• figuratively, literally
• good, well
• imply, infer
• insure, ensure, assure
• irregardless, regardless (irregardless
  is redundant: "without without regard")
• it's, its
• lay, lie
• lose, loose
• and many, many more!

Grammar Checker programs

Here is an example of a sentence that was marked by grammar checker
as having errors:
The managers of the organization meet each morning.

Grammar checker suggested the writer should use meets instead of meet; however, meet applies to managers, not organization, so "managers meet" is correct, not " managers meets." Grammar checker assumes the writer will place modifiers next to the words they modify, which is normally a correct assumption.

Usage

Many words and phrases are misused so often, we sometimes forget which is the correct usage.

Incorrect: Please try and finish the report on time.
Correct: Please try to finish the report on time.

Incorrect: The report simply alluded to the problem, rather than stating it clearly.
Correct: The report simply eluded to the problem, rather than stating it clearly.

Incorrect: The discrepancy in the report eluded the author.
Correct: The discrepancy in the report alluded the author.

Incorrect: The wind tunnel did not effect her hair style.
Correct: The wind tunnel did not affect her hair style.affect is a verb

Incorrect: What affect did it have?
Correct: What effect did it have?/What was the effect?

Incorrect: He was already to start work on the project.
Correct: He was all ready to start work on the project.
Better: He was ready to start work on the project.

different from vs. different than

In formal writing, the preposition from is used with different.

• The fourth-generation computer is different from the third-generation computer.
• Different than is acceptable when it is followed by a clause.

Than vs. Then

• Than is used for comparison: One is smaller than two.
• Then is used for time: First I'll go home, then I'll put my feet.

Whom vs. Who

If you can use him/them, you should use whom:

• Do you need to call him?
• Whom do you need to call?
• You need to call them?
• You need to call whom?
• "Who ya gonna call? Ghostbusters!" s/b "Whom ya gonna call?" But in this case, its obviously informal communication.

Who, Which, That

Who refers to persons.
That and which refer to animals and things.
That, rather than which, should be used with restrictive clauses.

Hint: If you can surround it with commas, use which.

Compare:

After John left his house, which is on the corner, he went straight to work. (nonrestrictive)
A company that diversifies often succeeds. (restrictive)

Latin Words and Phrases

ad hoc (for this) no hyphen:
The ad hoc committee will meet this Thursday.

per diem (per day) no hyphen:
The field service reps will be paid $30 per diem.

i.e. (id est, that is):
The big dog (i.e. the Golden Retriever) is sick.

e.g. (exempli gratia; for example, such as):
Big dogs (e.g. Golden Retrievers and Great Danes) make great family pets.

sic (thus) verbatim:
"I aint gonna (sic) do it!"

Mixed Construction/Parallel Sentences

Mixed construction occurs when a sentence contains grammatical forms that are inconsistent with one another.

• I will check your report, and then it will be returned to you. (active to passive voice)

To make it parallel, change it to:

• I will check your report, and then I will return it to you.

The bulleted list that follows is not parallel:

The following recommendations were made regarding the position statement:

• Stress that this statement is for all departments
• Start the statement with "If the company"
• The statement should emphasize that it applies both to department managers and staff
• Such strong words as obligation, owe, and must should be replaced with words that are less harsh

To make it parallel, make each bullet an imperative (do this, do
that):

The following recommendations were made regarding the position statement:

• Stress that this statement is for all departments
• Start the statement with "If the company"
• Emphasize that it applies both to department managers and staff
• Replace such strong words as obligation, owe, and must with words that are less harsh.

Hint: In a list, use bullets for steps that do not have to be completed
in any particular order. Use numbers ONLY if the steps must be completed
in that order:

1. Open the microwave door.
2. Insert food.
3. Close the door.
4. Select cook time.
5. Press Start.

Where possible, only put one step per bullet. If there is only one item, it should not be in a bullet. Either make it into a sentence or note, or add more bullets.

Sentence Structure

Identify the parts of speech in the following sentence:
John often throws beach balls with his feet.

Subject	Adverb	Verb	Adjective	Direct Object	Prepositional Phrase
John		throws		balls
John	often	throws	beach	balls	with his feet

(Compare: The beach balls were thrown by John. Balls is now an indirect object.)

Conjunctions

A coordinating conjunction is used to join parts of a sentence or to separate clauses that are equal in rank. Using coordinating conjunctions makes the reading more smooth, less choppy. For example: He was angry. He got over it. He was angry but he got over it.	and or but for nor yet so
Correlative conjunctions are coordinating conjunctions that are used in pairs. Correlative conjunctions need parallel sentence elements. For example: He was not only handsome, but also very intelligent.	either, or neither, nor not only, but also both, and whether, or
Subordinating conjunctions connect sentence elements of varying importance. Although no one will actually follow her advice, she spent hours putting together the grammar presentation. The phrase "Although no one will actually follow her advice" is subordinate to the phrase "she spent hours putting together the grammar presentation."	Most common are: so although after because if where than since unless as before though when whereas

Dangling Modifier

Phrases that do not clearly and logically refer to the proper noun or
pronoun are called dangling modifiers. They are usually caused by overuse
of the passive voice.

	While eating in the cafeteria, the computer malfunctioned. (Was the computer eating in the cafeteria?) While the operator was eating in the cafeteria, the computer malfunctioned.
	The man rented a house with his son, which cost $400 per month. (Did the son cost $400/month?) The man and his son rented a house for $400 per month.

Pronouns

Personal pronouns refer to the person(s) speaking or being spoken to or about. I am very tired right now.	them they his he your you mine me I
Demonstrative pronouns must have an antecedent. I keep finding typos in this presentation. (Presentation is the antecedent, i.e. the word to which "this" refers.)	this that these those
Relative pronouns link a dependent clause to a main clause. I am the technical writer who created this presentation.	who whom which what that
Interrogative pronouns ask questions. Who am I?	who whom wha twhich
Indefinite pronouns specify a group of person or things rather than a particular person or thing. All good things must come to an end.	all any another each both
Reflexive pronouns indicate that the subject of the sentence acts upon (reflects) itself. (See examples below this table.)	myself yourself himself herself oneself themselves ourselves
Intensive pronouns act like reflexive pronouns but give emphasis to their antecedents.  I myself asked the question.
Reciprocal pronouns indicate the relationship of one item to another. People should always respect one another.	one another each other

Compare the following sentences that use personal pronouns:

Incorrect	Correct
Me and him went to the store. Me went to the store. Him went to the store.	He and I went to the store. I went to the store. He went to the store.
He went to the store with she and I. He went to the store with she. He went to the store with I.	He went to the store with her and me. He went to the store with her. He went to the store with me.
Please call my assistant or myself to make an appointment. Please call myself to make an appointment.	Please call me or my assistant to make an appointment. Please call me to make an appointment.

Personal pronouns and gender-specific wording

There is no singular personal pronoun in English that refers to both
sexes. He is traditionally used when the sex of the antecedent
(the noun that he refers to) is unknown. The use of a masculine
pronoun (he/his) to refer to both sexes can be offensive. It is better
to rewrite the sentence in the plural or avoid use of a pronoun altogether.
(Many American and English writers [Shakespeare, Shelley, Dickens] have
used they and its forms to refer to singular antecedents, but it's considered
a "no-no" by many editors.)

	The engineer cannot do his job until he understands the concept. Engineers cannot do their jobs until they understand the concept.
	The technician should take care in choosing his equipment. The technician should take care in choosing equipment.
	If we hire another nurse, she could help us complete the task. Hiring another nurse would help us complete the task.

While we're on the subject of offensive
phrases...

Based on a survey of 7,500 managers and executives enrolled in writing
programs, the following phrases were deemed offensive:

"To be perfectly honest" suggests that everything else has been dishonest. "Needless to say" contradicts whatever follows, so skip it. "Enclosed herewith, please find" is wordy and dated; substitute "enclosed is" or "enclosed are" "As you know," "as you are aware," "as per our conversation" are unnecessary and may sound insulting; omit them. "I am writing this letter to inform you" states what is obvious to the reader. "Please rest assured" sounds "as if you're asking the reader to take a nap," said survey respondents. "Please be advised that" wastes time and says nothing. "At your earliest convenience" and "as soon as possible" are too vague; provide a specific date. "If you should have any further questions, please do not hesitate to contact me" is overused. Find a fresher expression, such as "Please call if you have any questions." "For your perusal," "review," "consideration" are outdated and pretentious. All of these phrases should be avoided by contemporary business writers.

Adjectives

Anything that modifies a noun functions as an adjective.

Articles

Indefinite	Definite	Demonstrative	Possessive	Numeral
a an all none some any	the	this that these those	my his her your our their	two first
A dog was barking.	The dog was barking.	That dog was barking.	My dog was barking.	Two dogs were barking.

Punctuation

Just as body language cues us in to what another person is saying, so
does punctuation clarify what is written.

Commas are used to:

	Introduce a word or phrase: He needed only one thing, encouragement. (Or: He needed only one thing: encouragement.)
	Separate independent clauses: He did not like his work, and his distaste for it was evident to everyone. (Comma optional here. Since they are two independent clauses, they could also be two separate sentences.)
	Enclose parenthetical words, phrases, clauses: Note, for example, the illegally parked bus.
	Indicate omission: He takes his work seriously, himself lightly. (He takes is omitted in the second half.)
	Make a series more clear: I request that all of my worldly goods be split equally between Jim, Jacob, Sarah, and Susie. (Each gets 25%, right? Well, maybe 20% each--the lawyer gets his share, too!) I request that all of my worldly goods be split equally between Jim, Jacob, Sarah and Susie. (Do Jim and Jacob each get a third, with Sarah and Susie sharing the other third? The law says, yes.)

Ellipses

Ellipsis dots are not used to introduce a series or a bulleted list.
Do not use ellipsis dots for any purpose other than to indicate omission,
such as when quoting a source from which you have edited words. Be careful
when you do omit words to not change the overall meaning.

The letter states "the programmer and the developer must create a system flowchart."

The letter states "the programmer ... must create a system flowchart."

Quotation Marks

Both double (") and single (') quotation marks
are for enclosing words, phrases, clauses, sentences, paragraphs, and
groups of paragraphs.
Quotation marks are used for:

Direct quotations

Lengthy direct quotations

Change of speaker

Titles and names (Underlining or italics s/b used in word processing)

Quotation w/in a quotation

Place marks correctly with reference to other marks. (British usage
is exactly reversed from American usage.)

	The comma and the period always come inside the quotation marks. "Well," he replied, "Im not sure." Then he inquired, "What do you think is fair ?" He referred to it as a "gentlemans agreement," but to me it was sheer " bunk."
	A question mark, exclamation point, or dash come outside the quotation marks unless it is part of the quotation, as in the first example: "What will my starting salary be?" asked the manager. Did he say, "I have enough money"? The performance was a "flop"!
	The semicolon and colon come outside the quotation marks: Study the following in "Human Anatomy": Bones

Colon

A colon is used for:

	Introduction My goal in this job is simple: success.
	Separation (as in subtitles) Education for College: Improving the High School Curriculum

General rules of usage:

Never use a colon directly after any verb, or the conjunction that. Do not place a colon between a preposition and its object

Hyphenation

	Hyphens may be used to avoid ambiguity and difficult reading, but if misreading is unlikely, the compound may be closed. re-create (vs. recreate) biomedical multifaceted interrelated anti-inflammatory (double vowel) co-opt
	Compound adjectives should be hyphenated, as in labor-intensive report two-digit date fields on-staff engineers Y2K-Compliance Assessment (vs. Y2K Compliance)

New Words

Many words in common use today are relatively new, or are old words
being used in a new way. Therefore, the "rules" for their use
are not firmly established. Some examples are:

• Internet (capitalized)
• intranet (not capitalized)
• online
• email, e-mail, or E-mail (AKA "evidence
  mail" Keep that in mind when you send them!)
• Web page (capitalized)
• Website (capitalized)
• browser, site, server
• protocols
• logon, log on
• The Logon dialog box appears. (noun)
• Log on to the network. (verb)

Compound Words

• An open compound is a combination of separate
  words that are so closely related as to constitute a single concept, such
  as stool pigeon.
• A hyphenated compound is a combination of
  words joined by one or more hyphens, such as mass-produced goods.
• A closed or solid compound is a
  combination of two or more originally separate words that are now spelled
  as one word, such as notebook.

For some years now, the trend in spelling compound words has been away
from the use of hyphens (except for words like e-mail, which refuses to
die). This is a trend, not a rule. After they are in common use for an
undefined amount of time (usually, after they make it into a dictionary),
they go from being temporary compounds to permanent compounds.
When a compound is used as an adjective before a noun, it is often hyphenated
to avoid misleading the reader.
For example, Bob's first-floor apartment is hyphenated to make it clear that you mean an apartment on the first floor, rather than it was Bob's first apartment.
The phrase, sixty-five-year-old men is hyphenated to make it clear that the men are 65 years old,
rather than there being 60 five-year-old men.
However, the phrase much loved friend is understood as is and requires no hyphen for clarification. Note also that foreign words and phrases are usually not hyphenated, as in ad hoc reports. There are pages and pages of rules and exceptions having to do with hyphenated compounds. For example, half-baked plan is hyphenated (as are most half compounds) but halfway house and halfhearted attempt are not. (These are examples of temporary compounds that have become permanent compounds through widely accepted use. BTW, words ending in ly are not hyphenated since ambiguity is unlikely.) When there are multiple adjectives in a compound, each is hyphenated, as in Do you manage other customer- or business-sensitive data, to indicate, in this case, that the data is both customer sensitive and business sensitive. Without the hyphen, the sentence is asking two separate questions: Do you manage other customer? (which makes no sense) and Do you manage business-sensitive data?

References

Most of the examples and "rules" in this presentation were taken from:

Handbook of Technical Writing by St. Martins Press

Punctuate it Right! by Harry Shaw

The Computer Encyclopedia by Alan Freedman

The Chicago Manual of Style by the University of Chicago Press

"Don't Use These Phrases!" Winning Strategies for Corporate Communication, Springfield, Virginia: Communication Concepts, 1991.